QC 

5 V? 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 
QCTO7 

ShelfjT?B. 



UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



HOW TO 



Make and Use Electricity. 



A Description of the Wonderful Uses of 

Electricity and Electro-Magnetism, 

Together with Full Instructions 

for Making Electric Toys, 

Batteries, Etc., Etc. 



<^YOFCO*q^ , 

y NOV 1 1889 * 
By GEORGE TREBEL, A.M., BLB>" 3 



Containing Over Fifty Illustrations. 



New Yobk: 
PEANK TOUSEY, Publisher, 

34 and 86 North Moore St. 

\ 




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1889, by 

FRANK TOUSEY, 
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington, D. C. 






a 



HOW TO MAKE 

AND 

Use Electricity. 



CHAPTER I. 

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. 

Electricity, that great and marvelous agent in nature, of 
whom we hear and see so much, and of whose composition we 
know so little, is virtually to be found everywhere and in every- 
thing living or inert. 

To give an accurate definition of this agent is beyond the 
power of any living man. We simply know that it exists and 
that it is subject to certain rules of which we will speak later. I 
desire simply to give the Boys of New York a few hints and in- 
structions to enable them to make use of this wonderful agent 
for their own amusement. 

The term electricity is used to denote both the unknown 
cause of electrical phenomena, and the science which treats of 
electrical phenomena and their causes. The most general 
effect by which the presence of electricity is manifested is at- 
traction. Thus, if you take an ordinary cylindrical lamp chim- 
ney and rub it with a dry silk handkerchief o.* woolen cloth, 
it will attract small bits of paper, feathers and cotton. A very 
pleasing experiment of this kind may be performed by laying 
two rows of brls of tissue paper upon'a table, and passing your 
chimney slowly over them at a height of about one inch. The 
bits ot paper will all scramble toward the chimney and will 
adhere to it for a short time. 

There are some bodies through which electricity will not 
pass; such bodies are non-conductors. Those through which 
the current passes readily are called conductors. An example 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



of the above will be found in the following experiment: Take 
a small piece of pith from an elder stalk and attach it to the 

wooden stand, as shown in this 
cut, by means of a small fila- 
ment of silk thread. The pith 
should be about the size of a 
tomato seed, and the silk may 
be obtained by unwinding a silk 
thread and taking out one of 
the thin strands. Glue the pith 
ball to the silk thread by means 
of common mucilage, and after 
you have thoroughly rubbed 
your lamp chimney, gradually 
approach it to the pith ball and 
note the result. Every time you 
n6ar the ball it will move away 
from the glass, thus indicating 
that a non-conductor will repel 
a good conductor which has 
been charged by the same kind 
of electricity. 
"V" y &» XtZ — - In case there should be no 

>/y / 'wjgQ^3gg*>^ x elder stalks at hand, bits of cot- 

r / / ^^Vn-i^S%^ ton, feathers or cork will answer 



the purpose. This experi- 
ment may be performed on a 
large scale by making a spider 
out of cork, painting it black 
and passing black thread 
through the body for legs. 
After the spider has been at- 
tached to the stand in the 
same manner as in the preced- 
ing experiment, take a large 
gallon bottle, and electrify it 
by rubbing hard for several 
minutes. The bottle will be- 
come electrified much more 
readily if it has been previ- 
ously warmed. 

A sheet of common white 
writing paper if warmed and 
rubbed vigorously with the 
back of a rubber comb will 
adhere to the wall for some 
time; or if placed near the 
cheek of a person would pro- 
duce a peculiar crawling sen- 





USE ELECTRICITY. 5 

sation od the akin, resembliog that produced by a cobweb. In 
this latter case, the paper should be held within a quarter of 
an inch from the face. This is a neat little trick for boy? to 
play upon their schoolmates who sit in the bench before them. 

All the above experiments simply indicate the presence of 
electricity in these bodies, and also furnish proof for the fact 
that it generally makes itself known by either attraction or re- 
pulsion. 

Although friction is the most common and by far the most ex- 
tensive means of exciting bodies, yet it is not the only means. 

Electricity is manifested during the changes of state in 
bodies, such as liquefaction and congealation, evaporation and 
condensation. Some bodies even are excited by mere pressure ; 
others by the contact or separation of different surfaces. Most 
chemical combinations and decompositions are also attended 
by the evolution of electricity. 

If we rub a piece of amber, sealing-wax or any other resinous 
substance on dry woolen cloth or fur, or silk, and bring it to- 
ward the pith-ball, it will be repelled. But, if we take a piece 
of iron, brass, or copper, and rubbing it thoroughly, bring it 
close to the ball, what will it do? It will do nothing^ at all, for 
these substances are such good conductors, that so soon as the 
electricity is generated, it passes through the hand and body 
to the ground, and is lost. 

You have seen that if a glass rod or chimney is excited by 
rubbing, it will repel a pith ball. But if you rub a piece of seal- 
ing wax with a dry woolen cloth, it will attract the pitn ball. 
Hence, if yon hold a glass on one side and a piece of sealing 
wax on the other side of the ball, it will saving from one to the 
other like the pendulum of a clock. This proves that there are 




two kinds of electricity, viz : positive and negative. That which 

attracts the ball is positive, and that which repels it is negative. 

Make a stand of light wood about six inches high by four 



6 HOW TO MAKE AND 

inches wide, shaped like the illustration above, and suspend 
therefrom three or four pith balls with silk threads fastened 
to the cross piece. Now touch the end ball with your lamp 
chimney and each one of the balls in succession, and you will 
find that they will repel each other. But if you touch some 
of them with sealing wax, and some with glass, you will find 
that they attract each other. The best way, however, to gen- 
erate frictional electricity is by means of the Cylinder Machine, 
which any boy of average intelligence may construct for him- 
self; and many are the amusements which may be derived 
from it. 




The principal parts belonging to this machine are called the 
cylinder (A), the frame (B B), the rubber (C) and the conduc- 
tor (D). For the cylinder (A), take a large, smooth candy jar. 
and cement a circular piece of quarter inch board over the top, 
where the lid ought to be. Glue a smaller circular piece to the 
bottom of the jar, and drive a round piece of iron (1-8 by 3 
inches) into the wood at both ends to act as an axle. This 
axle is fitted accurately into holes pre\iously made in the up- 
rights (B. B), so as to turn without waddling. 

The woodwork should be coated with varnish. The rubber 
(0) consists of a leather cushion or pad stuffed with hair like 
the padding of a saddle. To the top of the pad is sewed a piece 
of silk half as wide as the cylinder is long, and extending over 
the top of it to within an inch of the points of the conductor, 
to be mentioned presently. 

The rubber should be coated with an amalgam of equal parts 
of mercury, powdered zinc and tin rubbed up together. The 
rubber should be made to fit closely to the cylinder, in order 
that it may rub the cylinder equally when it is turned by 
means of the crank. The crank is attached to the axle at either 



USE ELECTRICITY. 7 

end. The pillar upon which the rubber rests should be insulat- 
ed by placing a piece of india rubber between it and the base 
board. 

The conductor (D) is a hollow cylinder of brass or copper, 
mounted upon an upright with a broad base, so as to balance 
it evenly, and insulated with india rubber. Through the back 
of the pad runs a screw so far as to almost touch the glass jar 
when- it revolves, and to this screw attach a brass or iron chain, 
which is allowed to hang down on the base board. Into one 
end of the conductor bore a hole and insert a copper wire 
of about five inches in length (c). The condenser should be 
placed about one foot distant from the cylinder. Make a rake 
by soldering five or six pieces of inch wire to a larger wire of 
the same width as the cylinder, and fasten it to the conductor 
by means of a heavy copper wire. 

The points of the rake should be about one eighth of an inch 
distant from the cylinder. In order to operate the machine, 
turn the crank violently, when it will be noticed that sparks 
;vill jump from the cylinder to the points of the rake, and in this 
manner will charge the conductor. In making this machine, 
care must be taken to use nothing but well-seasoned, dry lum- 
ber, and to fit the axle accurately in the supports, otherwise the 
cylinder will wabble when it is turned and will produce no 
current at all. If properly made this machine will generate 
an enormous quantity of electricity, and many pleasing and 
instructive experiments may be performed with it. In our 
next chapter I will enumerate these and also show how to 
make a galvanic battery and the uses to which it may be put. 



CHAPTER II. 

FRICTIONAL ELECTRICITY. 

After having made our friction machine, we are ready to 
perform a number of experiments which will demonstrate the 
relation between positive and negative currents. But during 
all this discussion we must bear in mind that no electrical phe- 
nomena can take place without a circuit. It matters not whether 
we deal with primary, induced or frictional currents ; we must 
always have a circuit to accomplish any purpose. It will be well 
for the learner to bear this in mind, as it will often explain a 
failure. 

Figure 1 represents two plates of copper or brass, of which the 
upper is suspended from the prime conductor by a metallic 
chain, and the lower rests on a stand which may be elevated or 
depressed at pleasure. If the stand is insulated, the effect of 
the insulation may be taken off by letting a chain or tinsel cord 
hang fiom a nail in the side of the table on which the plate 
rests, to the floor. The images are formed of light paper (gilt 
paper is best) or of elder pitch, dressed so as to represent living 
figures. On turning the crank of the machine, the upper plate 
becomes electrified and lifts the images toward it. When they 
come near it' they become similarly electrified, are repelled, and 



8 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



descend to the lower plate, and thus perform a kind of dance, 
which, if well managed, may be made to imitate strikingly the 
motions of real life. Sometimes, when the images do not dance 
readily on their feet, tbey will still dance on their heads. Breath- 
ing on them sometimes makes them dance more lively, by mak- 
ing them better conductors ; and a certain amount of electricity, 
neither too much nor too little, is to be supplied by varying the 




rate of turning in the machine, so as to hit the exact point 
which is most favorable. 

In this instance, tfce upper plate communicates its positive 
electricity to the figures, and they, when they are electrified by 
the same current, are repelled instead of attracted, thus giving 
rise to that Indian war-dance which they perform. Several 
figures may be dressed up as men and women or as animals, 
and the performance may be varied so as to suit the taste and 
fancy of individuals. 

Jflg. 2 represents a chime of bells which may be increased to 
any number desirable from two to ten or more. If the bells are 
of different tones, the effect will be more pleasing. Three bells 
are hung side bv side to the prime conductor. The two outer 
bells are suspended by metallic chains, which connect thera 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



with tho prime conductor, while the inner bell is suspended by 
a silk thread which insulates it; but from its center a fine 
chain or tinsel cord falls on the table so as to connect it with 
the ground. The clappers— two in number— are hung by silk 
threads between the bells and consist of small bits of copper, iron 
or brass. Now, when the machine is turned, the outer bells im- 
mediately become electrified and attract the clappers, which no 
sooner come into contact with them than they imbibe the same 
kind of electricity and are repelled and go to the central bell 
where they discharge their current and return for more; thus 




© 



© 



<S 



keeping the bells constantly ringing. A very moderate amount 
of electiicity is sufficient for this experiment. 

This also demonstrates very clearly that like currents repel, 
and opposite currents attract. It also shows that a body will 
hold just so much current, and no more. 

The best experiment of this kind is performed by placing a 
glass vessel full of water upon a table, and allowing a chain, 
which is attached to the prime conductor, to hang in the water, 
in which the figure of a metallic swan is floating. Whenever the 
finger is approached to the swan, it follows it wherever it goes. 

We now come to an instrument which, at the time of its 
discovery, caused great admiration and astonishment, and was 
looked upon with superstitious awe by the multitude. But at 
this age of enlightenment, tne Ley den jar is considered a com- 
monplace affair, and is simply used to demonstrate the laws of 
frictional electiicity. 

The Leyden jar derives its name from the place of its dis- 
covery. In the year 1746, while some philosophers of Leyden 
were performing electrical experiments, one of them happened 
to hold in one hand a tumbler partly filled with water to a wire 
connected with the prime conductor of a friction machine. 
When the water was supposed to be sufficiently electrified, he 



10 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



attempted, with the other hand, to detach the wire from the 
machine ; but as soon as he touched it, he received a powerful 
electric shock. 

It was by imitating this arrangement that the Leyden jar was 
constructed ; for here was a glass cylinder, having good conduc- 
tors on both sides, viz., the hand on the outside, and the water 
on the inside, which were prevented from communicating with 
each other by the non-conducting power of the glass. A metallic 
coating, as tin-foil or sheet lead, was substituted for the two con- 




ductors, and a jar for the glass cylinder, and thus the electrical 
jar was constructed. In an age less enlightened than the pre- 
sent, and less familiar with the wonders of philosophy and 
chemistry, the striking and peculiar offects of electricity, us 
exhibited by the Leyden jar, would naturally excite great ad- 
miration and astonishment. Accordingly, showmen traveled 
with the apparatus through the principal cities of Europe, and 
probably no object of philosophical curiosity ever drew together 
greater crowds of spectators. It was this astonishing experi- 
ment which gave eclat to electricity. Everybody was eager to 
see and feel the experiment. 
Coat a green glass quart fruit-jar within and without, 






USE ELECTRICITY. 



11 



for about twothirds its length with tin foil, using flour paste 
Close the mouth of the jar with a cork, and pour sealing-wax 
over it. Through the cork pass a stout brass or copper wire till 
ii touches the inner foil. Cast a lead bullet (a) on the exposed 
end of the wire. Clean, warm and varnish the exposed glass 
surface of the jar, and thoroughly dry it, and it is ready for use. 
The jar may be charged by connecting its outer coating with 
the earth and bringing the leaden ball close to the prime con- 
ductor, or by connecting one of its coatings with the prime 




conductor ( + ) and the other with the chain (— ). To discharge 
the jar connect the outer coating with the knob of the jar. To 
avoid a shock in doing so prepare a discharger as follows: 
Through the cork of a soda-water bottle- pass a stout brass semi- 
circular wire. Cast on each of its ends a lead bullet. Place the 
cork in the bottle, and use it as a handle. When it is desirable 
to discharge thy Leyden jar touch the outer coating with one 
ball and the knob of the jar with the other. A bright spark 
will pass from the knob to the ball and the jar will discharge it- 
self with a loud report. 

The charge of a Leyden jar maybe retained for a very long 
time. If the surfaces be well separated from each other the 
charge remains for many days, or even weeks. The charge is 
usually dissipated by particles of dust in motion or other con- 
ducting substances in the atmosphere from one of the coatings 



12 HOW TO MAKE AND 

to the other, or by the uncoated interval becoming moist and 
losing its insulating power; consequently a jar will retain its 
charge longer in dry than in damp weatner. It is best to 
make three or four Leyden jars, since there are some experi- 
ments which require the exclusive use of a jar. 




Figure 5 represents two Leyden jars, one charged positively 
and the other negatively, and placed side by side on a table. 
Between tbem is suspended by a siik thread an image of a spi- 
der, having a body of elder pith and legs of black linen thread. 
This image is alternately attracted and repelled between the two 
jars, thus very strikingly showing the opposite characters of 
the two electricities. 

In this ingenious apparatus (Fig. 6), three little birds, made 






USE ELECTRICITY. 



13 



of pith ball or light paper, and painted to suit the taste, are kept 
suspended by their mutual repulsion whilst the jar is charging ; 
but when the charge arrives a certain degree of intensity, a 
spark will pass from the knob of the eun of the sportsman, and 
the birds fall instantly. The sportsman should be made of tin, 
and the gun of copper and placed upon a small piece of board. 




The birds are attached to the wire by means of silk threads, 
and the two wires are inserted into the cork of a Leyden jar. 
The jar should not be fastened to the board. Charge the jar 
with a friction machine and move its free knob up to the gun of 
the sportsman. This finishes the subject of the Leyden jar;and 
leads us to a short explanation of the " Electrophorus," which 
we will give next time. 



CHAPTER III. 

ELECTBOPHOEUS AND CUBBENT EEECTBICITY. 

In case it should be impossible to make a friction machine.<the 
electrophorus will answer all ordinary purposes. It is made in 
the following manner: 

On a circular disk of sheet-iron or tin 8 inches in diameter ce- 
ment a circular disk of vulcanite 7 inches in diameter. 

To the center of another circular disk of tin 5 inches in diam- 
eter, (Fig. 1) apply with heat one end of a stick of sealing-wax 
for a handle. Now strike the surface of the vulcanite a few 
times with a cat's fur or a fox-tail ; it will become electrified 
with negative (— ) electricity. Then place the tin disk on the 



14 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



vulcanite ; the negative electricity of the vulcanite will polarize 
the disk, inducing positive (f) electricity on its lower surface 
and — electricity on its upper surface. Now place a finger on 
the disk. The — electricity will escape through your bodv to 
the earth, but the t electricity will remain on the disk, held by 
the — electricity of the vulcanite. Finally, raise the disk by its 
insulating handle. Removed from the influence of the — elec- 



y — ^ 




2SF$ *V™ I ulca ? lte ' the f electricity of the disk is now free, 
£ « &.££ »™ .? °-n° ne of y° ur naEd s (Fig. 2) is brought near 
it, a bright spark will pass from it to your hand, and it will be- 
come discharged. 

The disk may be charged and discharged in the same man- 
Se^lt ° f timeS WUh0Ut ■**» whipping the vul- 

«„^£t y £ ei l- Jar m ?l be char geu* in the same manner a neat 
number of times without recharging the electrophorus This 
apparatus will take the place of a friction machine, and most 

&™r^^i££* n } i0 ? ed i n conne ^n with the same may 
be performed with the electrophorus. Before taking up current 

SLhSSSi w ? ff 1S ° ne T 0re amusin S experiment which may be 
performed with any instrument 

Prepare an insulated stool (Pig. 3.) bv placing a souare hoard 

on four dry and clean glass tumblers used as lies ^Let a ver- 

™' T-m2 V Z m ?% J ° b . n > stand on this stoofand lett per- 
son James, strike John a few times with a cat's fur (Borrow 

orine theTnuX^Ta ZZ moonll 'g ht ni ^t). Then lit Jam^s 
Dnng tne Knuckle of a finger near to some part of John's nor- 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



15 



who is to perform the experiment take off his shoes and put on 
a pair of dry woolen socks. Now let him scrape both feet vio- 
lently on the carpet, sliding one foot after the other (imitating 
roller skating), and after this has been done for a few minutes 
approach a knuckle of the hand to a gas jet, and the gas will 
immediately catch fire. A woolen carpet is necessary in this 
experiment. 
I have performed this experiment several times, and it never 




fails to leave an impression of the supernatural upon the minds 
of those who are not acquainted with the laws of electric phe- 
nomena. It may be well to remark that this experiment cannot 
be performed by every person. 

We now come to that portion of electrical science which has 
been so remarkably developed within the last few years— name- 
ly, current electricity, or electricity as generated by batteries or 
magnetism. In the frictional, electricity is generated by means 
of friction between two substances ; in tne current it is gener- 
ated by means of a chemical decomposition of metals. 

Batteries are vessels containing a chemical solution in which 
two metals, or a metal and a vegetable substance, are immersed. 
In current electricity also we find two kinds of fluid — the 
positive and the negative. To demonstrate this chemical 
action, take a strip of sheet copper and a strip of sheet zinc, 
each about six inches long and two inches wide ; take also 
a tumbler two-thirds full of water, and to it add about two 
tablespoonfuls of sulphuric acid. (See fig. 4.) Place the zinc 
and copper strips in the glass, and allow the exposed ends to 
touch ; instantly bubbles of gas collect on the surface of the 
copper, break away from it, rise to the surface of the liquid, 
and are rapidly replaced by others. These are bubbles of hy- 
drogen gas, and may be collected and burned. It is soon 
found that the zinc wastes away, or is dissolved in the liquid. 
In this instance the sulphuric acid acts upon the zinc, 



16 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



forming sulphate of zinc, which, being soluble in water, is 
raedily dissolved. The action upon the copper is the same, but 
not so strong. Sulphate of copper is formed in the same man- 
nre. By means of this chemical combination electricity is pro- 
duced, and hydrogen gas is liberated. This experiment 
also proves that zinc is composed largely of hydrogen gas. 




Withdraw the zinc from r the liquid, and while it is yet wet 
rub a little mercury over its surface, so that it may become 
completely wet with the liquid metal. Now repeat the above 
experiment. First, it is found that the Zinc, when alone in 
the liquid, is not affected by it, and no bubbles of gas are 
formed. But when the two metals are immersed in the 
liquid, and are brought into contact, bubbles of gas quickly ap- 
pear on the copper as before, but none appear on the zinc, 
although it will be found that the zinc still wastes away, 
whilst the copper remains apparently unchanged. Instead 
of placing the metals in contact, connect them by means of a 
copper wire, the points of contact being clean ; the bubbles are 
given off at the copper as before. Cut the connecting wire 
at any point, or separate it from the zinc or copper, all evolu- 
tion of bubbles ceases, but begins again the instant the con- 
tact is made. 

Interpose between the connecting wires a piece of 






USE ELECTRICITY. 



17 



paper, wood or rubber, or use some one of these instead of a 
wire to connect the two plates ; no action appears in the glass. 
Thus it is evident that there must be a connection, and that 
too of a particular kind, between the two metals in order 
that action may occur. The connecting wire, then, is an impor- 
tant factor in the changes That occur, and il-seenis altogether 
that some inflac.oo is' exerted by the metals upon one another 
through the wire, in other words, that something unusual is 
going on in the wire when so used. 

Now the question arises : Is that action confined to the cell, 
or is it also manifest in the wire which connects the two ele- 
ments of the cell. (The zinc and copper are called elements, 
and the tumbler is called a cell.) In order to discover what 
the wire contains, we will try the following experiment. 

Tate an ordinary compass, or poise a magnetic needle at 
its center, either by pivot, as in .Figure 5, or by a fine un- 
twisted silk thread, and arrange the connecting wires as in 
the figure. The needle when at rest points north and south. 
The connecting wire being over the needle, and parallel to 
it, bring the two extremities into contact ; instantly the needle 




turns on its axis, tending to place itself at right; angles to" the 
wire, and, after a few vibrations, takes up a permanent posi- 
tion, forming an angle with the wire. This deviation from 
its normal position is called a deflection of the needle. Separate 
the two extremities of the wire, and the needle will swing back 
to the usual position. If a piece of paper is interposed be- 



18 HOW TO MAKE AND 

tvreen the ends of the wire, no deflection of the needle 
will Occur. 

Take a large iron nail, and plunge one end of it into iron 
filings, and then remove it; no filings cling to the nail. Next, 
wrap a piecT 1 ,of paper around the nail, leaving the ends ex- 
posed, and wind around it 20 or more turns of copper wire, 
taking pains that the' coii& do not touuu each oth«r. Now con- 




nect the wire with the copper and zinc as before, so that there 
will be a continuous connection from one strip to the other- 
through the coil, and dip one end of the nail again into the 
filings, raise the nail and a considerable quantity of filings 
clings to the nail. The copper strip is frequently called the 
negative plate, and the zinc strip the positive plate, and the end 
of any conductor connected with the copper or negative plate is 
called the positive pole, or electrode, while the end connected 
with the zinc or positive plate is called the negative pole or 
electrode. Therefore if we bring together the f and — elec- 
trodes, the current passes from the former to the latter, across 
the junction; and generally that plate and that electrode is f 
from which the current goes, and that plate and that electrode 
is — to which the current goes. 

a 



O ^ rt 

g 5 g 

£ Eh »J 



o a s 



If, instead of copper, we had used two zinc plates in our ex- 
periments above, there would have been generated two opposite 
currents which would neutralize each other and thus give no 






USE ELECTRICITY. 



19 



result. In the preceding table the substances are so arranged 
that those at the head and bottom work best together. 

It will be seen, therefore, that sdnc and platinum are the two 
metals best adapted to give a strong current. Silver and cop- 
per come next. In making a battery, the strength may be com- 
puted by the above list. 

CHAPTER IV. 

BATTEEIES. 

Fbom the table given in the last chapter, it will be seen that 
carbon and zinc, and copper and zinc, make good combinations 




for both powerful and lasting batteries. Of course, the strength 
and duration of a current depend largely upon the solution used. 
Zinc is used in more batteries than any other element. Ail 
commercial zinc contains impurities, such as carbon, iron, etc. 
If apiece of zinc, containing a particle of iron on its surface, is 
immersed in dilute sulphuric acid, the particle of iron with the 



20 HOW TO MAKE AND 

zinc will form numerous voltaic circuits, and a transfer of 
electricity along the surface will take place. This action be- 
tween the zinc and its impurities divert so much from the regu- 
lar battery current, and thereby weakens it. In addition to this, 
it occasions a great waste of chemicals, because, when the 
regular circuit is broken, this local action, as it is called, still 
continues. If pure zinc were available, no local action would 
occur at any time, and there would be no consumption of 
chemicals, except at times when the circuit is closed. If mer- 
cury is rubbed over the surface of the zinc, after the latter has 
been dipped in acid to clean its surface, the mercury dissolves 
a portion of the zinc, forming with it a semi-liquid amalgam 
which covers up its impurities, and the amalgamated zinc then 
acts like pure zinc, lasting for a much longer period. 

But there is another drawback which causes electricians 
much trouble, and that is the polarization of plates. 

When zinc and copper elements are first placed in dilute 
acid, a very good current of electricity is produced ; but the 
current soon becomes feeble. But the cause is soon discover- 
ed. The liberated hydrogen adheres very strongly to the cop- 
per, as there is nothing for it to unite with chemically: and 
therefore the plate is very soon visibly covered with bubbles 
which may be scraped off with a feather or swab, but only to 
have the same thing repeated. This coating of bubbles im- 
pedes the flow of electricity and diminishes the current. This 
action is called polarization of plates. Very many methods 
both mechanical and chemical, have been devised for remedying 
this evil. 

The following are the best and most widely known batteries, 
and all of them may be readily made without much trouble. 
Instead of a jar, a common earthen crock for a large, and a tum- 
bler for a small battery, may be used. 

The Smee battery (Figure 1) consists of a silver plate, or 
sometimes a lead plate, which is coated with a fine, powdery 
deposit of platinum which gives the surface a rough character, 
so that hydrogen will not readily adhere to it, suspended be- 
tween two plates of zinc. The two zincs are connected with 
each other forming one pole and the silver or lead forms the 
other pole. Care must be taken to present the zincs from 
touching each other or the middle plate. The solution used in 
this battery consists of one part of sulphuric acid to twenty 
parts of water. This battery is useful in running medical 
coils, electroplating and generally where a strong, constant 
current is required. The zincs should be rubbed with mercury 
frequently to avoid wasting. 

In the Grenet battery, the hydrogen is disposed of by means 
of chemical action. This action is rather complex, and will 
therefore, be omitted. The liquid used is a mixture of two 
ounces of bichromate of potassium, and one ounce of sulphuric 
acid dissolved in a quart of water. The zinc plate Z (Fig. 2) 
is suspended between two carbon plates C, C. The carbons re- 
main in the liquid all the time. (Carbon in the form of char- 
coal or electric light pencils will do.) 

This battery gives a very energetic current for a short time, 

! 



USE ELECTRICITY. 21 

but the liquid is soon exhausted. It is a very convenient bat- 
tery, as, when not in use, we have only to draw the zinc out of 
the liquid by the brass stem A, and, on pushing the zinc back 
into the liquid, action commences again. It is well to allow the 
battery to "rest" for a time by Avithdrawing the zinc from the 
solution. 




This is the best and most powerful form of battery known 
With two cells of this battery, a small two-candle incandescent 
lamp may be burned for 2 1-2 hours. Eighteen small cells will 
burn a 6-candle lamp for 1 1-2 hours. Later on I will describe 
a pocket battery which any boy can make and which will light a 



22 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



small electric light scarf-pin. k or strong currents or closed 
circuit work, this is by far the best form of battery. If instead 
of the above mentioned solution, a mixture of carbonate of am- 
monia and water is used, it will answer well for open circuit 
work with call bells, telegraph instruments, etc. 

The battery principally used in this country for telegraphing 
is called gravity or " crowfoot " battei-y. 




A copper plate, C, Figure 3, is placed on the bottom of a glass 
jar and covered with crystals of copper sulphate (blue vitriol), 
and the whole covered with water. As the vitriol dissolves its 
weight causes it to remain at the bottom in contact with the 
copper plate. The zinc crowfoot is suspended from the side of 
the jar by means of a notch. To start the action quickly a tea- 
spoonful of common salt or zinc sulphate is dissolved in the 
wat6r. In this battery the zinc need not be amalgamated. 
This is a very constant and lasting battery, requiring but little 
attention beyond the occasional addition of blue vitriol and 
cleaning the zinc about every two weeks. Two or three cells are 
usually sufficient to run all electrical bells in a house. One cell 
will run two telegraph instruments a few feet apart. 

For the following experiments make a Grenet battery ac- 
cording to the directions given above and charge it with the 
solution. Introduce between the ends of the copper wire of 
the battery a piece of No. 30 platinum wire about one-eighth 
of an inch in length. If the solution in the battery is fresh the 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



23 



platinum wire becomes white hot. Now stretch the platinum 
wire over a gas-burner, turn on the gas and light it by the heat 
of the wire. If lycopodium powder is strewed over cotton wool 
and is touched with the hot wire it will ignite. 

Connect one wire to an ordinary file or rasp in a dark room r 
and rub the other wire over the rough surface of the tile. As 
the wire passes over it the circuit is rapidly broken and closed, 
and each break causes a spark at the point where. the circuit is 
broken. The shower of sparks that flies from the file is due 
to red-hot particles of iron that are projected into the air. 




For the following experiment a V-shaped tube is necessary, 
which may be made by beating an ordinary glass tube in a 
Bunsen or oxy-hydrogen flame, and bending when it has ac- 
quired a cherry colored heat. 

Steep some leaves of purple cabbage, the solution has a 
deep purple color. Dissolve a little caustic soda in water, 
and pour a few drops of the solution into a portion of the infu- 
sion, and the purple will be changed to green. Caustic soda 



24 HOW. TO MAKE AND 

is an alkali, and cabbage infusion is turned green by alkalies 
only. Pour a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid into another 
portion of the infusion, and the purple will be changed to a 
red. Only acids turn purple cabbage infusion red. 

Now prepare a concentrated solution of sodium sulphate. 
Color the solution with a portion of the purple cabbage infu- 
sion, and partly flil the V-shaped glass tube (Fig . 4) with 
this liquid. Employ a battery of two Grenet cells, connecting 
the carbon of one battery with the zinc of the other. (See Fig. 
2.) Attach to the poles of the battery wires two narrow strips 
of platinum, and place one of these strips in each end of the 




tube, a little distance apart, so that the current will be 
obliged to traverse a part of the liquid. Close the circuit; 
bubbles of gas are immediately disengaged from the platinum 
strips; soon the liquid around the — pole is turned green, 
while that around the f pole is turned red. Evidently de- 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



25 



composition of the sodium sulphate has taken place; an 
acid and an alkali are the results. This is called electrolysis. 

Prepare a solution of ccpper sulphate, and subject it to elec- 
trolysis, as in the last experment; copper collects on the — 
platinum, and sulphuric acid and oxygen at the t platinum. 
Remove the platinum strips and introduce the copper ter- 




minals ; copper is now deposited on the — pole as before, but 
the t pole wastes away. 

Although we can obtain a strong current and perform 
many neat experiments with a battery, still electricity would 



26 HOW TO MAKE AND 

be of little value practically, were it not for the fact that it can 
be converted into magnetism, and from magnetism to electricity. 
Upon these two laws and principles are based all electrical ap- 
pliances. 

Obtain an insulated copper wire, wind twenty or more turns 
around a rod of very soft iron, four inches long by one 
quarter of an inch in thickness, and close the circuit. Bring 
a nail, (Figure 4) or other piece of iron, near the rod. The rod 
attracts the nail with much force, and this nail will attract 
other nails. The rod has acquired all the properties of a 
magnet. But the instant the circuit is broken, the iron loses 
its magnetic force, and the nails drop. 

The more times the wire is wound around the rod, within 
a certain limit, the more powerful is it magnetized. This ar- 
rangement is called an electro-magnet. The rod of iron is call- 
ed its core, and the coil of wire the helix. In order to take 
advantage of the attraction of both ends or poles of the mag- 
net, the rod is most frequently bent in a U-shape (A, Figure 
6), and then it is called a horse-shoe magnet. Sometimes 
two iron rods are use'd, connected by a rectangular piece of 
iron, as A, in B of Figure 6. 

The method of winding is such that if the iron core of the 
horse-shoe were straightened, or the two spools were placed 
together, end to end, one would appear as a continuation 
of the other, a piece of soft iron, b, placed across the ends, and 
attracted by them, is called an armature. The piece of iron A 
is called a back armature. 



CHAPTER V. 

THERMO-ELECTEICITY. 

So far in our experiments we have obtained a current of 
electricity by using the potential energy due to the chemical 
affinity of zinc and sulphuric acid, or by expending mechan- 
ical energy ; but we can also get a current directly from the 
molecular energy that we know as heat. 

Insert in one screw cup of a sensitive galvanometer an iron 
wire, and in the other cup a copper, or, better, a German silver 
wire. Twist the other ends of the wire together, and heat 
them at their junction in a flame ; a deflection of the needle shows 
that a current of electricity is traversing the wire. Place a 
piece of ice at their junction. A deflection in the opposite direc- 
tion shows that a current now traverses the wire in the opposite 
direction. 

These currents are named, from their origin, thermo-elec- 
tric. The apparatus required for the generation of these 
currents is very simple, consisting merely of bars of two differ- 
ent metals joined at one extremity, and some means of raising 
or lowering their temperature at their junction, or of raising 
the temperature at one extremity of the pair and lowering it at 
the other; for the electro-motive force, and consequently the 
strength of the current, is nearly proportional to the difference 
in temperature of the two extremities of the pair, The 



USE ELECTRICITY. 27 

strength of the current is also dependent on the thermo-elec- 
tric force of the metals employed. 

The following thermo-electric series is so arranged that 
if the temperature of both junctions are near the ordinary 
temperature of the air, those metals farthest removed from 
each other give the strongest current when combined ; and the 
current passes, when heated at their junction, from the one first 
named to that succeeding it. The arrows indicate the direc- 
tion of the current at the heated and cold ends respectively. 
At high temperature the current may bo reversed. 
Cold. 



a a 

a s 



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"53 

a 

a 
5 




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a 


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a 

o8 


Fh 

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a 
p 


a 

o — 

a 

a 


C5 


s 


k3 


eh 


^ 


£ 


55 


N 


i3 


^ 



Heat. 

The electro-motive force of the thermo-electric pair is very 
small in comparison with that of the voltaic pair ; hence the 
greater necessity of combining a large number of pairs with 
one another in series. This is done on the same principle, and 
in the same manner that voltaic pairs are united — viz., by 
joining the f metal of one pair to the — metal of another. 
Fig. 1 represents such an arrangement. The light bars are 
bismuth, and the dark ones antimony. If the source of 
heat is strong and near, by either conduction or convection, 
one face may be heated much hotter than the other, and a cur- 
rent equal to that from an ordinary galvanic cell is often ob- 
tained. Instruments constructed on these principles, and 
used as a.source of electricity, are very convenient and effi- 
cient for 'many purposes, especially when a steady current is 
required with small external resistance. They are called 
thermo-electric batteries. 

If the source of heat;, is feeble or distant the feeble current 
may serve to measure the difference of temperature between 
the ends of the bars turned toward the heat and the other 
ends, which are at the temperature of the air. The apparatus, 
when used for this purpose, is called a thermo-pile or a 
thermo-multiplier. 

A combination of as many as thirty-six pairs of antimony 
and bismuth bars, connected with a very sensitive galvan- 
ometer, constitutes an exceedingly delicate thermoscooe and 
thermometer. Quantities of heat, that would not perceptibly 
expand the mercury in an ordinary thermometer, can, by the 
use of a thermo-electric pile, be made to produce large deflec- 
tions of the galvanometer needle. Heat radiated from the 
body of an insect several inches from the pile may cause a sen- 
sible deflection. 



2a8 HOW TO MAKE AND 

In the selection of a battery for a particular use several 
things must be considered. Among the most important of these 

HEAT 




are the intensity of the current required, and the service re- 
quired, i. e., whether continuous, temporary or occasional cur- 
rents are wanted. The cost is of consequence, but that 
must be governed mainly by the preceding considerations. 
In the following table preferences are given to the several 
batteries by numbers in the order in which they occur against 
the several uses specified : 

Names of Batteries, Etc. 

1. Smee. 4. Daniell. 7. Magneto or dyna- 

2. Leclanche. 5. Grenet. mo machines. 

3. Gravity. 6. Bunsen or Grove. 8. Thermo-batteries. 

USES CELLS ARE SUITED FOR. 

Strong, Continuous Currents. 

Electrotvping or Electro-plating... , 7. 4, 1, 3. 

Electro-magnets 3, 4. 1. 

Electric light 7,6,5. 

Telegraph (closed circuit) 3, 4. 

Temporary. 

Induction coils 5, 6, 4, 3. 

Medical coils 5, 1, 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



29 



Occasional. 

Annunciators, domestic bells a, 1, 3. 4. 

Exploding fuses 2. 4. 

Electrical measurements (constant current) 8, 4, 3. 

Table of Electro-Motive Forces. 

Gravity or Daniell 0.98 to 1.08 Volts. 

Bunseh and Grove 1.75 to 1.96 " 

Leclanche, atflrst 1.48 to 1.60 " 

Grenet " 1.80 to 2. 3 " 

Smee 65. — " 

The force or current of the last three decreases considerably 
if the circuit is closed for a few minutes. These numbers sig- 
nify, for instance, that it will require 195 Smee 
cells to give the same current in a circuit as 
would be given by 65 Grove cells. 

From the^foregoing table it will be seen that for 
constancy and durability the gravity battery is the 
best ; but for strength of current and cleanliness 
the Grenet battery excels. 

One of the most familiar pieces of physical ap- 
paratus is a magnet. We know how it can pick up 
bits of iron and steel. By the aid of a small in- 
strument, mentioned before, we may make a pair 
of magnets and study there actions and laws. 
Take the electro-magnet, described in a previous 
article, and a couple of sewing needles or larger 
steel rods. Apply these needles, one at a time, to 
one end of the electro-magnet, and draw them sev- 
eral times across it from end to end, always in 
the same direction, and not rubbing back and 
forth. Bepeat the operation with an iron wire of 
the same size ; both the wire and the steel are at- 
tracted by the electro-magnet, but the iron wire 
more strongly. Obsene that both, while in con- 
tact with the electro-magnet, possess the power of 
attracting bits of iron, but on removing them the 
steel is found to retain the property it had, while 
the iron does not. 

Both of them exerted that peculiar force called 
magnetic force, or possessed the property called 
magnetism, that is, both were magnets ; but as 
steel retains its power, it is called a permanent 
magnet, in distinction from a temporary magnet, 
like the iron wire or the electro-magnet itself. 
The quality of steel by which it at first resists the 
power of magnets, and resists the escape of mag- 
netism which it has once acquired, is called co- 
ercive force. The harder steel is, the greater is its 
coercive force. Hence, highly tempered steel is 
used for permanent magnets. Hardened iron 
possesses some coercive force, hence the cores of 
«lftot.ro-maenets should be made of the softest iron, 



30 HOW TO MAKE AND 

that they may acquire and part with magnetism instantane- 
ously. 

Suspend two magnets, each in a horizontal position, by 
threads that will not untwist, and several teet distant from 
each other. When they come at rest, notice that they 
have taken up a direction nearly north and south. Tie 
a thread on the end of each that points to the north. 

This end, or pole, as it is usually called, we will speak of as 
the N-end, f, or marked end or pole, while the other is the 

s unmarked — or S end or pole (see Fig. 2). 

, Now bring the marked end of one of the magnets near to 
the unmarked end of the other; they attract one another. Next 
bring the marked end of one near the marked end of the 
other; they reper one another. Bring the unmarked ends near 
one another; they repel one another. From this we discover 
the following law of magnets : Like poles repel, unlike poles 
attract one another. 

Substances that are not susceptible to magnetism are, like 
glass, paper and wood, magnetically transparent. When a 
magnet causes another body, in contact with it or in its neigh- 
borhood, to become a magnet, it is said to induce magnetism 
in that body, i. e., it influences it to be like itself. 




As attraction, and never repulsion, occurs between a mag- 
net and an un magnetized piece of iron or steel, it must be 
that the magnetism induced in the latter is such that opposite 
poles are adjacent. Strew iron filings on a flat surface, and lay 
a box magnet on them. On raising the magnet it is found that 
large tufts of filings cling to the poles, as in Figure 3, 
especially to theedges; but the tufts diminish regularly in size 
from either pole toward the center, where none arti found. 



CHAPTER VI. 

MAGNETISM. 

Magnetic attraction is greatest at the poles and diminishes 
toward the center, where it is nothing, or the center of the bar 
is neutral. The dual character of the magnet, as exhibited 
in its opposite extremities, is called polarity, and magnetism 
is styled a polar force. If a magnet is broken at its neutrai 
line, as in the last article, it is found that equal and opposite 
polarities exist where there is ordinarily no evidence of them. 

Place a copper wire through which a strong current of elec- 
tricity is passing in a heap of iron filings, then raise the 
wire, filings cling to the wire somewhat as they do to a mag- 
ne f , as shown in Figure 1. 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



31 



This experiment and those with the electro-magnet and the 
deflection of the magnetic needle by an electric current, and a 
multitude of others that may be performed, cannot fail to con- 
vince that an intimate relation exists between electricity^and 




magnetism, which, though differing in many of their proper- 
ties, yet alike in many, and almost invariably accompanying 
one another, and constantly merging one into the other, appear 
as if they were only different manifestations of one and the 
same agent. 



BATTWJ 




Suspend two copper wires (Fig. 2) , each 12 inches long, 
and about 1-2 inch apart, with their lower extremities dipping 
about 1-4 inch into mercury, so as to move with little resistance 
either toward or from each other. Place one wire of the bat- 
tery in the mercury, and attach the other to the hooks above. 
In Fig. 2 the current divides and flows down both wires to 
the liquid mercury, so that that part of the circuit presents 
parallel currents flowing in the same direction. Figure 3 is 
the same apparatus, with the connection so made that the cur- 
rent flows down one wire and up the other, and we have an 



32 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



example of parallel currents flowing in opposite directions. 
In the former case the wires mutually attract one another. In 
the latter there is mutual repulsion. Hence we obtain the 
law. Parallel currents in the same direction attract one an- 
other; parallel currents in opposite directions repel one an- 
other. 

An iuteresting illustration of the former part of this law can 
be arranged as in Figure 4. A battery wire" is bent in the form 
of a spiral coil. At A the wire is 
broken, and one end dips just below 
the surface of mercury in a wine glass, 
while the other end is placed in the 
same liquid at a little distance from 
the first. When the circuit is closed 
the current will be parallel with itself, 
and will flow in the same direction in 
all parts of the coil that are adjacent. 
The attraction that follows will cause 
the coil to contract and lift one pole 
out of the mercury and break the circuit. The circuit being 
broken the attraction ceases, and the coil is drawn down 





again by the force of gravity, and closes the circuit again; and 
thus constant vibratory motion is produced in the coil. 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



33 



Prepare the following apparatus as represented in Figure 5. 
Through a cork A, 4 inches in diameter and 3 inches thick, cut 
a circular hole and insert a large-sized test tube B, about 6 
inches long, that will just fit in the hole. Take an (No. 20) in- 
sulated copper wire about 6 feet long, wind the central portion 
into a coil C, with turns about 1-8 inch apart, leaving about 3 
or 4 inches at both extremities unwound. To these fasten or 
solder pieces or strips of copper and amalgamated zinc as 
wide and long as the interior of the test tube will permit, and 
allow them to be separated. Insert them in the tube, and 
cover with dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 20). In the center of 
the coil lay a No. 16 soft iron wire D, and float the whole in a 
vessel of water. The apparatus constitutes a small floating 
battery and electro-magnet. Bring one end of a permanent 
magnet, or a short piece of soft iron wire E, suspended in 
a paper stirrup N, near to one of the poles of the core of the 
floating battery, and prove by experiment that the coil and its 
core behave in every respect like a magnet. 




Remove the iron wire from the floating electromagnet and 
bring a separate battery wire over and parallel with the helix, 
as in Figure 6. In this position the two currents flow in 
planes at right angles to one another. Immediately the coil 
turns and tends to take a position at right angles to the wire 
above, so that the two currents may flow in parallel planes 
and in the same direction as in Figure 7. It will be observed 
that the action of the helix in the last experiment is analogous 
to the deflection of a needle by an electric current. Place op^ 
posite one end of the floating battery a second helix, Figure 8, 
in such a manner that the currents in the two helices may 
have the same direction. The two poles of the helices attract 
one another in conformity to the law previously mentioned. 
Reverse the poles of the helix in your hand so that the cur- 
rents will flow in opposite directions, though still parallel ; 
they repel one another. 

The two helices appear to be polarized like two magnets, and 
for many purposes may be considered magnets. Observe that 
at one pole of each helix the current revolves id the direction 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



Si 

that the hands of a watch move, and at the opposite pole it re- 
volves in a direction contrary to the movement of the hands of 
a watch Bring the north pole of a box-magnet near that pole 
ot the helix where the motion of the current corresponds to 




the movement of the hands of a watch. They attract' one an- 
other; but if the same pole of the helix is approached by 
the south pole of the magnet, repulsion. follows. * Hence, that 
is the south pole of a helix where the current corresponds to 
the motion of the hands of a watch (S), and that is the north 
pole where the current is in the reverse direction (N). But the 
important conclusion derived from these latter experiments 
is, that helices through which currents are flowing behave 
toward one another, or toward a magnet, in many respects 
as if they were magnets. 

\jMM»lllllllilll*IMIII^ 

m 
Magnetize a cambric needle. Suspend it by a fine thread 

attached to its middle over a magnet, and midway between 

its poles. The needle, however placed, immediately takes a 

position parallel with the magnet. The magnet exerts a 

directive influence on the needle. 

Remove the magnet and the needle takes a northerly and 

southerly direction. 
If you carry the needle all over your town or state, it will still 

maintain this direction. Something like the magnet exerts a 

directive influence on the magnetic needle, 



USE ELECTRICITY. 35 

Place the needle once more in its original position over the 
magnet, and gradually move it from the middle toward one 
pole of the magnet, the needle ceases to be horizontal. At 
either side of the center it dips ; if it is nearer the N. pole of 
the bar, the S. pole dips, and conversely, as shown in Figure 
9. If the needle is properly supported, the dip increases till at 
the poles the inclination is 90 degrees. 

If a magnetic needle is freely suspended, and is carried to 
different parts of the earth's surface, it will dip as it ap- 
proaches the polar regions, and is only horizontal at or near 
the earth's equator. A common compass-needle must have 
the S. end loaded to keep it horizontal. Like effects are com- 
monly attributed to like causes. These phenomena are just 
what we should expect if (as is very improbable) a huge mag- 
net were thrust through the axis of rotation of the earth ; or if 
(us is more probable) the earth itself is a magnet. 

Take a sheet of writing paper and strew iron filings light- 
ly upon its surface. Place the poles of an ordinary horseshoe 
magnet beneath the paper and notice the result. 

It is evident that the space a magnet is around the seat of a 
peculiar influence; this 'space, extending as far as the magnet 
exerts any effect, is called the magnetic field. The last experi- 
ment presents a true exhibition, on a small scale, of what 
the earth does on a larger one, and thereby presents one of 
many phenomena which lead to the conclusion that the earth 
is a magnet. 

Hence it will be seen that the earth has poles just like any 
other magnet. Inasmuch as the magnetic poles at the earth 
do not coincide with the geographical 'poles, it follows that 
the needle does not in most places point due north and south. 
The angle which the needle makes with the geographical merid- 
ian is known as the angle of declination. This angle differs at 
different places. 

As Columbus found, we can easily find the declination at 
any place as follows : Set up two sticks so that a string joining 
them points to the North Star; the string will lie in the geo- 
graphical meridian. Place a long magnetic needle over the 
string; the angle between the needle and the string is the re- 
quired declination. If great accuracy is required allowance 
must be made for the fact that the star is not exactly over the 
pole, but appears to describe daily around it a circle whose 
diameter is about four degrees. 

The magnetic poles are not fixed objects that can be located 
like an island or cape, but are constantly changing. They ap- 
pear to swing, something like a pendulum, in an easterly and 
westerly direction, each swing requiring ceniuries to complete 
it. 

On the assumption that the earth is a ,magnet, it would not 
be strange if magnetizable substances should partake of its 
magnetic properties by induction. An ore of iron called lode- 
stone, composed of a mixture of two oxides of this metal, pos- 
sesses more or less magnetic power. Such magnets are termed 
natural magnets, to distinguish them from artificial magnets of 
steel. 



36 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



CHAPTER VII. 

CURRENT INDUCTION. 

The causo of the earth's magnetism is not known. The theory 
that it is an electro-magnet in virtue of currents flowing 
around it near its surface from west to east explains all the 
effects that it produces on the magnetic-needle. But what 
sustains these electric currents? ^There are many things 
that point to the sun as the source of the earth's magnetism. 
Those who adopt this theory generally regard the terrestrial 
currents as thermo-electric. 

A single instance will suffice to illustrate the intimate rela- 
tion that certainly exists between the sun's condition and the 
earth's magnetism. In 1859 two observers, remote from each 
other, saw simultaneously a bright spot break out on the 
face of the sun, whose duration was only five minutes. Exactly 
at this time there was a general disturbance of magnetic 
needles and telegraph wires all over the world, being traversed 
with so-called earth currents. Telegraphers received shocks, 
and an apparatus in Norway was even set on fire. These phe- 
nomena were quickly followed by auroral displays. Some- 
times telegraphs are worked by earth currents alone, without 
any battery in the circuit. 

Artificial magnets, including permanent magnets and electro- 
magnets, are usually made in the shape either of a straight 
bar or of the letter U, called the " horseshoe," according to the 
use made of them. If we wish, as in the experiments already 
described, to use but a single pole, it is desirable to have the 
other as far away as possible; then obviously the bar-magnet 
is most convenient. But if the magnet is to be used for lifting 
or holding weights the horseshoe form is far better, because 
the attraction of both poles is conveniently available, and be- 
cause their combined power is more than twice that of a single 
pole. This is due to the reflex influence of the poles on one 
another through the armature. 

Magnets, when not in use ought alwavs 
to be protected by armatures (A. Fig. 1) 
of soft iron for, notwithstanding the coer- 
cive power of steel, they slowly part 
with their magnetism. But when an 
armature is used, the opposite poles o[ 
the magnet and armature being in con- 
tact with one another, i. e., N with S, they 
serve to bind one another's magnetism. 

Thin bars of steel can be more thor- 
oughly magnetized than thick ones. 
Hence, if several thin bars (Fig. 1) are 
laid side by side, with their correspond- 
ing poles turned In the same direction, 
and then screwed together, a very power- 
erful magnet is the result. This is called 
a compound magnet. In any magnet the 
outer layers are far more strongly mag- 
netized than the central ones ; so a steel 




USE ELECTRICITY. 



37 



tube makes very nearly as strong a magnet as a rod of the same 
diameter, and is much lighter than the latter. 

Perpetual motion seekers are easily led into the erroi of sup- 
posing that in the magnet they have an inexhaustible supply of 
energy ; but a very little study will serve to exhibit thef char- 
acter of the error. If, for instance, we bring a piece 01 iron 
near a magnet, it is attracted, and, if allowed to move up to 
the magnet, this force of attraction will do a certain amount 
of work. Take now another piece of iron similar to the first; 
this also will be attracted, and a certain amount of work will 
be performed, but a less amount than that done in the first 
instance. Continue the operation until the magnet no longer 
attracts ; then the magnet has done a definite amount of work, 
and lost the power of doing more. To restore it to its original 
condition, we must remove all the pieces of iron ; this will re- 




quire an expenditure of external work exactly equal to that 
originally performed by the magnet. 

Thus far we have seen how currents of electricity are produced^ 
and how they are converted into magnetism. Now we will 
endeavor to explain how magnetism may be converted into 
electricity. In this fact alone lies the secret of all our late in- 
ventions, such as electric light, cable roads, etc. 

Connect a helix with a delicate galvanometer (Fig. 2), and 
quickly thrust a magnetized steel rod into the coil. A deflec- 
tion of the needle shows that a current of electricity at that 
instant traverses the wire. But the needle, after a few oscilla- 
tions, assumes its original position. This shows that the cur- 
rent was only momentary; quickly remove the magnet; again 
the wire is traversed by a current, but this time in an opposite 
direction to the first, as shown by an opposite deflection. 

Place within the coil a core of soft iron. Wave back and 
forth, over one extremity of the core, one of th« poles of a pow- 
erful bar-magnet. The needle of the galvanometer is violently 



38 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



agitated, being deflected in one direction at each approach, 
and in the opposite direction at each departure. Now repeat 
the experiments with the opposite pole of the maguet. The 
effect is, as we should expect, to reverse all the currents. 

If the permanent magnet is stationary, and the electro-mag- 
net is moved back and forth, the result is the same as when 
the magnet was moved and the electro-magnet was stationary. 
Machines constructed for the purpose of generating electric- 
ity in this manner are called magneto electric machines. 

Figure 3 will give a general idea of the construction of the 
simple kinds of magneto machines, such as are used in the 
telephone to ring the bells. 

N. S. is a permanent magnet, composed of several horse- 




shoe magnets screwed together. E. E. are coils containing 
rows of soft iron connected by the back armature C. C, the 
whole constituting a sort of an armature to the permanent 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



39 



magnet. The brass axle D. D. is rigidly connected with the 
back armature C. C, so that when the axle is rotated by means 
of the crank A, both helices are carried around with it. Now, 
suppose the crank to be turned; during the first quarter of a 
revolution a separation of poles occurs, and currents of elec- 
tricity are establish edin bothhelices. The wire that constitutes 
the helix is wound in opposite directions around the two cores, 
so that two currents may not flow in opposite directions 
thiough the wire, and thereby neutralize one another, but may 
have a common direction, and thereby produce a current of 
double the electro-motive force that would be produced in a 
single helix. 

During the second quarter revolution the poles approach 
one another, and the effect would be to reverse the current ; 
but the polarity of the wires also change, as they are now 
brought under the influence of the poles which they are ap- 
proaching, and this double change leaves the current to flow 
in the same direcion as it did before. At the end of a half 
revolution there is a reversal of current, as the poles do not 
Change at this point. The result would be that during every 




revolution there would be a current half of the time in one direc- 
tion and half of the time in the opposite direction. In order to 
secure a constant current in one direction a current reverser, 
I, or commutator, as it is called, attached to the axle, is so ar- 
ranged that the current is reversed at the end of each half rev- 
olution, and is then conducted away by the wires, G H. 



40 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



In large machines electro magnets, excited by the main 
current itself, are used instead of permanent magnets, and 
thereby a greater inductive power and compactness are 
secured. Such a machine is called a dynamo-electrical maohine, 
or often more briefly a dynamo (see Figure 4). The hand, or 
the steam engine, supplies the energy to revolve the magnets, 
and the product is electricity. The greater the mechanical 
power employed— in other words, the more rapid the revolu- 
tions, the greater the electro-motive force of tne current pro- 
duced. The electro-motive force varies also with the number 
of turns of wire in the coil used, and with the strength of the 
inducing magnets. The helix around the core may be made 
up of many turns of wire, if a high electro-motive force is de- 
sired to overcome great external resistance ; or of fewer turns 
of larger wire if a small internal resistance is wanted, as for 
electro-plating. 

When a very intense current is wanted an engine of eight or 
ten horse power is required. By means of the dynamo 
electric lighting, which formerly was considered a curiosity, has 
been reduced in expense so as to become a rival of gas lighting. 

If a core of iron, or still better, a bundle of wire (AA. Fig. 5.) 
is 4 inserted in the primary coil it is evident that it will be mag- 
netized and demagnetized every time the primary i3 made 
and broken. The starting and cessation ot amperian cur- 
rents in the core in the same direction as 'the primary current, 
and simultaneous with the commencement and ending of the 




primary'current, greatly intensifies the secondary current. That 
is, if a coil of wire is wound around a core of iron and 
attached to a battery, another coil which is wound around 
the first in an opposite direction, but having no connection 



USE ELECTRICITY. 41 

with it, will be charged with a greater quantity of electricity 
than the first. This is called induction and the coil an induc- 
tion coil. To save trouble in making and breaking the circuit 
by hand.as in Fig. 5, the core is also utilized in the construction of 
an automatic rnake-and-break piece. A soft iron hammer, B., 
is connected with the steel spring C, which is in turn connected 
with one of the terminals of the primary wire. The hammer 
presses against the point of a screw, D., and thus through the 
screw closes the circuit. But when the core becomes magnet- 
ized the hammer is drawn away from the screw and the circuit 
is broken. The circuit broken the core loses its magnetism, 
and the hammer springs back and closes the circuit again. 
Thus the spring and hammmer vibrate, and open and close 
the primary circuit with great rapidity. 

RhumkoftFs coil, of which so much mention is made in 
Jules Verne's works, is an induction coil with the simple addi- 
tion of a commutator, BB (see Figure 5). 

The primary helices of induction coils consist comparative- 
ly few turns of coarse insulated copper wire ; but the secondary 
helices contain many turns of very fine wire, insulated with 
great care. These coils develop a vastly greater current than 
can be obtained with the largest batteries. A coil construct 
ed for Mr. Spottiswoode, of London, has two hundred and 
eighty miles of wire in its secondary coil. With fine Grove 
cells this coil gives-fa secondary spark forty-two inches long, 
and perforates glass three inches thick. Many brilliant exper-. 
iments may be performed with these coils which have been 
indicated in connection with friction machines. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

USEFUL APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICITY. 

Currents from an induction coil have great E. M. F., like 
frictional electricity, and so cau pass through the poorly con- 
ducting tissues of the human body and produce violent mus- 
cular contractions. Currents induced by a single voltaic cell, 
through the mediation of an induction coil, may produce agon- 
izing convulsions. 

A voltaic current has a similar effect at the instants of mak- 
ing and breaking thefcircuit; but by beginning with a mild 
current, and slowly and gradually increasing its strength, a 
current from two hundred colls has been passed through a 
person with impunity. .The physiological effect produced by 
an induced current at its negative pole is more violent than.at 
the positive pole. In this way we may readily distinguish one 
poie from the other by simply holding one in each hand. The 
gradual current produces a benumbing influence, or insensibil- 
ity to pain. A to-and-fro motion of the current produces a 
muscular agitation of the part through which it is sent, the 
tonic and stimulating effects of which are similar to those of 
muscular exercise. 



42 HOW TO MAKE AND 

The galvanic current also exerts a powerful electrolytic effect 
on the system. On this principle it has been successfully em- 
ployed in reducing tumors, swellings, etc. 

A platinum wire heated white-hot by a powerful gaivanic 
current is used like a knife in surgical operations. The former 
has the advantage over the latter in that it sears the extremi- 
ties of the blood vessels and thereby prevents hemorrhage. 
Enough has been said to show that a medical practitioner who 
can apply the laws of electricity has at his command a power- 
ful therapeutic agent ; but except in experienced hands it is 
likely to prove useless, if not positively dangerous. 



B 



Cfe 



If the terminals of wires from a powerful magneto machine 
or galvanic battery are brought together, and then separated 
1-20 in., the current does not cease to flow, but volatilizes a 
portion of the terminals. The vapor formed becomes a con- 
ductor of high resistance, and remaining at a very high tem- 
perature produces intense light. The light rivals that of the 
sun both in intensity and purity. The heat is so great that it 
fuses the most refractory substances, including even the dia- 
mond. Metal terminals quickly melt and drop orf like tal- 
low, and thereby become so far separated that the electro- 
motive force is no longer sufficient for the increased resist- 
ance, and the light is extinguished. Hence, pencils of carbon 
(prepared from coke) which are less fusible, are used for ter- 
minals. For simple experiment, these pencils may be held in 
forceps (Fig. 1.) at the ends of two brass rod6, to which the 
battery wires are attached. These rods slide in brass heads A 
and B supported by insulated pillars, to that the distance 
between the carbon points may be regulated. With the eight- 
cell Grenet battery, which I will shortly describe, this apparatus 
gives a beautiful illustration of the arc light, used in lighting 
streets. 

This light is too intense to be examined by the naked eye • 
but if the image of the terminals is thrown on a screen by 
means of a lens, or a pin hole in a card, an arch-shaped light 
is seen extending from pole to pole, as shown in Figure 2. 

This light has received the name of the voltaic arc. The larger 
portion of the light, however, emanates from the tips of the 
two carbon terminals, which are heated to an intense white- 
ness, but come from the arc. The f pole is better than the 
— pole, as is shown by its glowing longer after the current is 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



43 



stopped. The carbon of the f pole becomes 
volatilized, and the light-giving particles are 

+ kbm transported from the t pole to the — pole, form- 
f@£9 ing a bridge of luminous vapor between the 
""■"• poles. What we see is not electricity, but lumin- 
ous matter. Neither light nor a current can exist 
with out matter, as may be shown by trying to 
pass a current between two metallic poles, a 
J little way apart, in a charcoal vacuum ; no 
f spark can be produced. 

It is apparent that the t pole is subject to 
a wasting away, and the — pole* to a slight acces- 
sion of matter. At the point of the former a 
conical shaped cavity is formed, while around 
the point of the latter warty protuberances ap- 
pear. When, in consequence of the wearing 
away of the t pole, the distance between the 
two pencils becomes too great, the light goes out. Numerous 
self-acting regulators for maintaining a uniform distance be- 
tween the poles have been devised. Such an arrangement is 
called an electric lamp. In some tho carbons are worked by 
clock-work, which requires winding up occasionally; in others 
the movement of the carbons is accomplished automatically 
by the action of the current itself. 

The " Jablockoff Candle " obviates all necessity for regula- 
tors. In this candle, instead of the carbons pointing toward 
each other, they are placed side by side, A and B (Fig. 3), sep- 
arated by a thin insulating septum, C, of kaolin. The cur- 
rent passes up one carbon, across the space between the 





points, and down the other. In its passage between the points 
it forms the luminous arc. The heat of the arc fuses and vola- 



44 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



tilizes the kaolin, andyt wastes slowly away like the wick of a 
candle; hence its name. 

The electric light is of the purest white. In it the most 
delicate colors retain their noonday purity of tint, while a gas 
lteht appears of a sickly yellow hue in comparison. The average 
lamp burned on our streets is from 1,500 to 2,000 candle power. 
But a still greater invention than the arc light is the incan- 
descent electric lamp invented by Thomas Edison, thejrfng of 
electricians. This is merely a piece of compressed carbon con- 
tained in a glass globe, from which the air has been exhausted. 
Figure 4 represents a lamp of that kind of 2- 
candle power, i. e., will give as much light as 
two ordinary tallow candles. The current nec- 
essary to cause the carbon to become white 
1 heat, and thus give light, is 2 Volts (3 cells 
f of tGrenet battery.) Lamps of this kind are 
now'made varying in candle power from 1-4 to 
16 and 20. The 16-candle lamp is the one gen- 
erally used to light store-rooms with, as this 
light is not so strong and does not affect the 
eyesight so much as the arc light. 
"I will now describe a powerful battery which 
anybody can make, and the cost of which will 
not exceed $1.50. This battery will light a 6-can- 
dle lamp for four consecutive hours, or, if not 
burned continuously, for a week, using it a 
short time each day. It will also perform all 
the experiments mentioned in these articles, and do any work 
that may be expected from a powerful battery. If attached to 
a large motor it will run a sewing-machine or a small express 
wagon on a board floor. Make two top pieces of inch pine board 
A. A. seven inches square (Fig. 5.) Buy also eight ordinary tum- 
olers and eight pieces each of zinc and carbon. 

Have the zincs and carbon cut 1-4 inch thick, 1 1-2 wide 
and 3 inches long. Amalgamate the zincs first by dipping 
them into dilute sulphuric acid (1 to 20 of water) and rubbing 
metallic mercury over them until they are coated with ajbright 
silvery deposit. File a small nick into each corner of the zincs 
and carbons about 1-8 inch from the end and pass a few 
turns of No. 25 copper wire around them. Use the end of this 
wire to connect the elements together. Now set the elements 
on the board in the order given in the cut (c. z.), and fasten 
them down by means of strips of wood D, which should be 
nailed close to the carbon and zinc so as to hold them in 
place tightly. Bore small holes into the wood and pass 
through your copper wires which are attached to the carbons 
and zincs. Now take the wire from one carbon and attach 
it to the wire of the zinc in the next cell ; take the carbon of 
this cell and connect it with the zinc of the next, so that when 
all are connected, you will have one carbon and one zine left. 
These latter are the battery wires and must be attached to the 
copper washer of the binding post (F. Fig. 6). The zinc and 
carbon in each tumbler should be 3-1 inch apart, and the 




USE ELECTRICITY. 



45 



elements of each cell 
those of the next cell. 



should be 1 1-2 inches distant from 
By using four binding posts, two on 




each board, four cells may be used at a time ; or, by using eight 
binding posts, two cells may be used at a time. Care, however, 
must be taken to connect the carbons with the zincs, otherwise 
there will be no current at all. Figure 6 is taken from a pho- 
tograph ot a battery of this kind, which I use for lighting a 6- 
candle lamp; The tumblers are placed in a pine box 9 inches 
high, 14 1-2 inches long and 8 inches wide. 




The hooks, E, 'are fastened to both sides of the top board, 
and are turned out at right angles to the board, whenever it 



46 HOW TO MAKE AND 

is raised, so as to rest on the top of the box, thus keeping the 
elements out of the fluid and saving them from wascage. This 
should always be done. C represents , a covered wire, which 
connects the electric lamp with the binding posts, F F. A 
lamp and stand of any candle power may be purchased for $1.50. 
This battery will burn two 2-candle lamps, four 1-candle 
lamps, eight 1-2 candle lamps, or one 6 candle lamp. If 
the fluid is pretty fresh it will burn an 8-candlo lamp constantly 
for about one hour. After the battery has been made as de- 
scribed above, fill the tumblers almost full with the following 
battery fluid: Water, 2 quarts; common sulphuric acid, 6 oz. ; 
bichromate of potassium, 8 oz. Add the acid to the water, 
and, after it has become cool, add the finely powdered bichro- 
mate of potassium. Whenever the battery is exhausted,^ new 
fluid must be made, as the old one is entirely useless. After 
the fluid has been put into the tumbler, lower the top containing 
the elements and attach your wires to the electric light. The 
light will immediately burn, and continue so until the fluid is 
exhausted. The 2-candle lamp is small enough to be placed in 
the mouth, but care must be taken not to burn the tongue, as 
the glass becomes quite warm after burning for some time. In 
the next chapter I will describe a pocket battery and electric 
scarf-pin. 



CHAPTER IX. 

POCKET BATTEKT AND MOTOB. 

TnE battery described in the last article consisting of eight 
cells will answer for ail experiments where a strong current ia 
required. A small motor for running paste-board figures, etc., 
may be made in the following manner: Buy two electro-mag- 
nets (or make them yourself), and fasten the two wires nearest 
each other together. Mount them on a wooden base, and after 
having cut a Maltese cross out of a piece of soft iron, just wide 
enough to cover the core of the electro-magnets (C. Fig. 1), pass 
a thin iron spindle D through the cross, and hold in position 
by means of the piece of iron E. Fasten the two remaining 
wires, of the electro-magnet to the binding posts F F. The 
battery wires must be attached to these posts, when the motor 
will run with surprising rapidity. 

The above illustration will give a fair idea of how a motor 
should be made. If you cannot make one, you will be enabled 
to buy one of this kind for $1.50. 

Figure 2 represents a small battery which may be concealed 
in any pocket and connected by means of an insulated double 
wire with a small 1-2 candle power electric lamp which is fast- 
ened to a cravat or scarf. The battery may be made as follows : 

Take a piece of hard rubber four inches long and one inch 
wide, and fasten alternately two pieces of carbon and zinc 
(Fig. 3) 3-4 inch wide by 3 1-2 inch long, by means of screws 
to it. 

Now purchase either a glass or rubber jar four inches long, 
four inches deep and one inch wide, and cement a piece of 



USE ELECTRICITY. 47 

glass in the center, so as to divide the jar into two compart 
ments or cells. Fill the cells with the battery fluid mentioned 
in the last article and fasten the lid on the cell tightly, by means 
of strips of rubber laid between them, so as to prevent the fluid 
from being spilled upon the clothing. Connect the carbons 
with zincs, and the remaining carbons and zinc with the 
binding posts at the end of the lid. 

Buy a one bait candle power electric lamp and solder a darn- 
ing needle to one of the wires (Fig. 2), connect the lamp with 
the battery by means of an insulated wire twisted into one cable. 




The light may be started either by touching one of the wires of the 
binding posts, or by attaching a button to the battery wires by 
means of two short pieces of wire, which are made to rest in 
the arm-holes of the vest. The light should not be burned 
continuously, but flashed only at intervals ; neither should ^the 
elements be allowed to remain in the solution when the bat- 
tery is not in use, a« they would soon be eaten up by the fluid. 
The entire cost of this battery and light, as described above, 
would be about $2. 



48 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



Most books and periodicals are now printed from electro- 
type plates. This process is called electrotyping, and is done in 
the following manner: 




A molding case of brass, in the shape of a shallow pan, is filled 
to the depth of about one centimeter with melted wax. A few 
pages are set up in common type, and an impression taken by 
pressing them into the wax. 

The types are then distributed, and again used to set up other 
pages. Powdered plumbago is Applied by brushes to the sur- 
face of the wax mold to render it a conductor. The mold is 
then flowed with alcohol to prevent the adhesion of air-bubbles, 
and afterward with a solution of copper sulphate, and dusted 
with iron filings, which form by chemical action a thin film of 
copper on the plumbago surface. The case is then suspended 
in a bath of copper sulphate dissolved in sulphuric acid. The 
— pole of a galvanic battery or magnetic machine is applied to 
it, and from the positive pole is suspended in the bath a cop- 
per plate opposite and near to the wax surface. The salt of 
copper is decomposed by the electric current, and the copper 
is deposited on the surface of the mold. The sulphuric 
acid appears at the X pole, and, combining with the copper 
of this pole, forms new molecules of copper sulphate. When 
the copper film has acquired the thickness of an" ordinary vis- 
iting card, it is removed from the mold. This shell shows dis- 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



49 



tinetly every line of the types or engraving. It is then backed 
with melted type metal to give firmness to the plate. The 




plate is then fastened on a block of wood, and thus built type 
high, and is now ready for the printer. 

The distinction between electro-plating and electro-typing 
is that with the former the metallic coat remains permanently 




on the object on which it is deposited, while with the latter it 
is intended to be removed. The processes are, in the main, the 
same. 



50 HOW TO MAKE AND 

The articles to be plated are first thoroughly cleaned and 
suspended onrthe — pole of a battery, and then a plate of the 
same bind of metal that is to be deposited on the given arti- 
cles is suspended, from the X pole (Fig. 4.) The bath used 
is a solution of a salt of the metal to be deposited. The cyan- 
ides of gold and silver are generally used for gilding and sil- 
vering. 

Many of the base metals require to be electro-coppered first 
in order to secure the adhesion of the gold or silver. The mag- 
neto-electric machine has almost replaced the voltaic battery 
f or electrotyping and electro- plating purposes. 

For ordinary purposes, however, the Smee battery, which con- 
sists of two plates of zinc (Fig. 4=), between which is a lead 




plate covered with powdered platinum and immersed in a 
solution of one part of sulphuric acid to nineteen parts of water, 
is the best. Two cells are required to work properly. All arti- 
cles that are to be plated must be thoroughly cleaned with 
acid, and must be free from grease. 

The word telegraph literally signifies to write far away. In 
its broadest sense it embraces all methods of communicating 
thoughts with great speed to a distance by means of intelli- 
gible characters, sounds or signs ; but usually it is applied only 
to electrical methods. 

First, it should be understood that instead of two lines of 
wire, one to convey the electric current far away from the bat- 
tery, and another to return it to the battery, if the distant 
pole is connected with a large metallic plate buried in moist 
earth, and the other pole near the battery is connected in a like 
manner with the earth, so that the earth forms about one-half 
of the circuit, there will be needed only one wire to connect tele- 
graphically two places that are distant from each other. Fur- 
thermore, the resistance offered by the earth to the electric 
current is practically nothing, so that, disregarding the resist- 
ance of the ground connections, there is a saving of one-half 
the wire and one-half the resistance, and consequently one-naif 
the battery power. 

There are two ways of receiving a message— by means of 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



51 



sound and by means of holes on a slip of paper. Let B, Figure 5- 
represent the message sender, or operator's key ; Y the mes- 
sage receiver. It may be seen that the circuit is broken at 

B. Let the operator press his finger on the knob of the key. 
He closes the circuit, and the electric current instantly fills 
the wire from B to Y. It magnetizes A ; A draws down the 
lever B, and presses the point of a style on a strip of paper, 

C, that is drawn over a roller. The operator ceases to press 
upon the key, the circuit is broken, and instantly B is raised 
from the paper by a spiral spring, D. Let the operator press 
upon the key only for an instant, .or long enough to count 
one, a simple dot or indentation will be made in the paper. 
But if he presses upon the key long enough to count three 
the point of the style will remain in contact with the paper the 
same length of time, and as the paper is drawn along beneath 
the point a short, straight line is produced. 

This short line is called a dash. These dots and dashes con- 
stitute the alphabet of telegraphy, and this is the style of re- 
ceiving by means of paper. 

If the strip of paper be removed and the style is allowed to 
strike the metallic roller, a sharp click is heard. Again, when 




the lens is drawn up by the spiral spring it strikes a screw 
point above, and another tick or click, differing slightly in 
sound from the first, is heard. A listener is able to distinguish 
dots from dashes by the length of the intervals of time that 
elapse between these two sounds. 

Operators generally read by ear, giving heed to the clicking 
sounds produced by the strokes of a little hammer. A receiver 
so used is called a sounder, a common form of which can be 
seen represented in Figure 6. 

In larger lines, where the current must travel miles of wire, 
a relay, which throws the circuit of the sounder on a 
local battery, is used. Otherwise the sounder would give 
either a very feeble or no sound at all. 

The following is the alphabet and figures : 



52 HOW TO MAKE AND 

ABCDEF GHI 

J KLMNOP Q 

R S T U V W X Y 

Z & , ? 

12 3 4' 5 6 

7 8 9 



CHAPTER X. 

* CONCLUSION. 

In 1850 the practicability of conveying an insulated wire un- 
der water was proved by the laying of a single copper wire, 
insulated with guttapercha, between Dover and Calais, which 
continued in operation for one day. A heavier cable, containing 
four wires, was subsequently 'submerged at the same place, 
and continues in operation to this day. 

About 300 cables of various styles of manufacture have been 
laid in different parts of the world, varying from three cables 
each of 2,000 miles length, joining Europe to America, to the 
numerous short lengths which now unite the western islands 
of Scotland with the mainland. The cables laid in the earlier 
years passed through many vicissitudes, and have entailed 
great loss from imperfect insulation, mishap in submersion, 
and other causes. 

The Malta-Alexandria cable, laid in 1861, and which contin- 
ued in use for eleven years, was the first long cable construct- 
ed with a careful regard to its electrical and mechanical con- 
ditions, and it corresponds very closely with the best form of 
cable now made. 

About thirty different forms of cable have been made, light- 
er cables being made for temporary use or for still ;; water, 
while the heavier cables, carefully tested in every stage of 
manufacture and submersion, are intended for deeper or 
stormier seas. 

In the longest submarine lines it was found that only a weak 
current was received at the distant end, and in order to se- 
cure the action of the current a more delicate instrument than 
any in use must be provided. This was found in the beautiful 
invention or adaptation by Sir William Thomson, of the Re- 
flecting Galvanometer. Figure 1 shows the principle of this 
instrument. In the figure, D represents a short magnetic nee- 
dle suspended by a silk fiber, and having attached to it a small 
mirror. Needle and mirror together weigh about a grain and 
a half. By means of a lamp a pencil of light is thrown upon 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



53 



the graduated index, A B, a movement of this image lo one side 
or other being made to represent the dots ?.ad dashes of the 
Morse alphabet. To give steadiness to the needle it is brought 
to rest by a magnet after each deflection. 

By an enlargement o| ..the graduated scale some very dUicate 
illustrations of electric action can be given. Thus, to show 
that dissimilar metals plunged in the same liquid will evolve 
elect r;cit>,t lie wires leading to the galvanometer may be joined 
up to a steel knife and a silver fork, and on fixing the fork into 
a piece of raw meat the light on the scale will be sensibly de- 
pleted at the instant the knife is brought also in contact with 
the meat. A cell consisting of a copper percussion cap with a 
small morsel of zinc has been found to create sufficient elec- 
tricity to send a message across the Atlantic. 

In his ink-recorder, Sir William Thomson has given another 
beautiful adaptation of electric science. A fine coil is sus- 





pended between the poles of a fixed magnet, and attached to 
the coil is one limb of a small glass syphon, the other end of 
which dips into a vessel containing ordinary ink. 

So long as no current passes the ink flows from the syphon 
in a straight stream, making a mark on a paper tape which 
runs below. But on the coil being attracted to either side by 
the passage of an electric current the ink work waves from 
side to side, the deflections serving as the dots and dashes 
of the Morse rods. Fac-simile telegraph is an autographic 
apparatus, by means of which a message may b», practically, 
transmitted over a wire and appear at a distant terminus in 
the exact handwriting of the sender and ready at once for de- 
livery. The principle on which it works may be learned 
from Figure 2, in which all the details of its mechanism are 
omitted for simplicity of illustration. X is a sheet of tin-foil, 
on whicn the message to be sent is written with an ink pre- 
pared by dissolving sealing-wax in alcohol. The alcohol 
quickly evaporates, leaving the lines of sealing-wax adhering 
to the foil. Y is a sheet of paper moistened with a solu- 
tion of prussiate of potash. Each of the pens is simply a 
small, pointed iron needle. Now, suppose that both of the 
pens are moved at the time and with the same rapidity across 
their respective sheets. The electric current, decomposing 
the prussiate of potash, will cause the needle in New York 
to trace a continuous blue line on Y, until the needle in Bos- 
ton reaches a line of sealing-^ax on X, when the circuit is 



54 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



broken a3 it- passes over this line. At the same time there is 
abreakinthe continuity of the line traced on Y. If, further, 
each needle is moved down a hair's breadth each time it trav- 
erses ats respective sheet, theii we shall have an exact fac- 
similed the writing on the tin foil produced on the chemically- 
prepared paper, except that whereas the original is written in 
dark letters on a light ground, the message is received-in light 
letters on a dark ground. Pen and ink sketches of photographs 
and other pictures may be transmitted in the same way. 




The pens are not, of course, held and guided by human 
hands, but by complex machinery. The rigorous exactness 
requisite in the movement of the two pens is secured by the 
absolute synchronisms in the vibration of two pendulums, one 
at each terminus, controlled by the electric current. 

Figure 3 represents a sectional view of the Bell telephone. 
It consists of a steel magnet, A, about five inches long and 
three-eighths of an inch in diameter, encircled at one extrem- 
ity by a short bobbin, on which is wound a coil, B, of very 
tine insulated wire; the ends of the coil, C C, are connected 
with the binding screws, DD. Immediately in front of the 
magnet is a thin, circular iron disk, E E. The whole is inclosed 
in a wooden or rubber case, F, with the exception that the 
wood is cut away at G, so as to expose one surface of the iron 
disk. The conical-shaped cavity serves the purpose of either 
a mouth-piece or an ear trumpet. There is no difference be- 
tween the transmitting and receiving telephone ; each instru- 
ment is in itself a diminutive magneto-electric machine, and 
so, of course, no battery is required in the circuit. Connect in 
circuit two such telephones by two wires, or employ the earth 
for one of the conductors, and the apparatus is ready for use. 
^ "When a person talks to the disk of the, transmitter, he 



USE ELECTRICITY. 



55 



to the magnet, is itself a magnet by induction ; and, as it 
throws it into rapid vibration. The disk, being quite close 
vibrates, its magnetic power is constantly changing, being 
Strengthened as it approaches the magnet, and enfeebled as it 

recedes. Thisifluctuating mag- 
netic force will, of course, 
induce currents in alternate 
directions in the neighboring 
coil of wire. These currents 
traverse the whole length of 
the wire, and so pass through 
the coil of the distant instru- 
ment. When the direction of 
the arriving current is such 
as to reinforce the power of the 
magnet of the receiver, the 
magnet attracts the iron disk 
in front of it more strongly 
than before. If the current 
is in the opposite direction 
the disk is less attracted and 
flies back. Hence, whatever 
movement is imparted to the 
disk of the transmitting tele- 
phone the disk of the receiv- 
ing telephone is forced to re- 
peat. The vibrations of the 
latter disk become sound in 
the sam9 manner as the vibra- 
tions of a tuning fork or the 
beat of a drum— but this ex- 
planation would belong to the 
science ot acoustics or sound. 
The Microphone, although of 
little use practically, is still a 
great curiosity scientifically, and can easily be made by a good 
mechanic. In figure 4, A and B are buttons of carbon ; the 
former is ^attached to a sounding-board of thin pine wood, 
well seasoned, the latter to a steel spring C, and both are 
connected in circuit with a battery and a telephone, used as a 
receiver. The spring presses B against A, but any slight jar 
will cause a variation of the pressure. The reader must have 
learned ere this that the effect of a loose contact between any 
two parts of a circuit is to increase the resistance, and thereby 
weaken the current ; but the effect of a slight variation in pres- 
sure is especially noticeable wnen eitner or both of the parts are 
carbon. Now any slight jar, as that caused by the tick of a 
watch, will cause a variation in the pressure between the car- 
bon buttons, and this will produce a corresponding variation 
in the current, and the fluctuations in the current are attend- 
ed with the usual vibrations in the telephone receivei. 

By means of this instrument, called microphone, any little 
sounds, as its name indicates, such as the ticking of a watch 




56 



HOW TO MAKE AND 



or the footfall of an insect, may be reproduced a considerable 
distance, and be as audible as though the original sounds were 
made close to the ear. If a person talk to the thin pine 
board, his words will be distinctly heard in the receiver. 

The last subject which we will consider is the Storage or 
Secondary battery. 

A Storage battery consists simply of two lead plates im- 
mersed in a solution of sulphuric acid and water (water 10 
parts, acid 1 part). Figure 5 represents ajar containing the 
elements ready for use. 




Take a piece of pine wood three inches wide by four inches 
long, and fasten to it six plates of sneet lead, two inches 
wide by three inches long, about half an inch apart. Connect 
the second plate with the fourtn, and the third with the fifth; 
this leave3 the first and sixth, which are positive and negative 
respectively. Place these in a square glass or earthen jar three 
iuches wide, four inches long, and four inches deep; place 
into the jar the solution and fasten the top on tightly. The ele- 
ments nor the solution need not be changed at all, as they 
waste away very slowly. 

In order to charge the battery connect its two wires to the 
wires of the 8-cell battery described in another article, and allow 
them to be in circuit for two hours. Disconnect them, and the 
battery is ready for use, and must be handled the same as any 
other battery. This single cell will burn a 2-candle lamp 
for one hour. After the battery is discharged, attach it again to 
the 8-cell battery for two hours, and it will be as fully charged 
as the first time. If the top is properly sealed, the battery 
may be carried in the pocket. In conclusion I would state that 
if you fail to reach any result the first time you try any of 



I'SE ELECTRICITY. 57 

these experiments, try it over again and you will succeed better 
than at first. 




Great care must be taken to have all wires and connections 
properly insulated, and you will find that many a failure is 
referable to the neglect of this precaution. All materal used 
should be dn/and clean-, dirt and moisture are good conduct- 
ors. If you arc unable to make one part of an apparatus, you 
may save a great deal of worry and time by purchasing the 
same at a low price from some dealer in such articles. Instru- 
ments of this kind are very expensive, but single parts are very 




cheap, and with a little ingenuity combined with directions 
found in these articles, you will be enabled to make, in mini- 
ature, almost any instrument now in use. I would, however, 
caution all to be careful with the acid mentioned in connect- 
ion with batteries. Should any of it be spilled on clothes, it will 
ruin them entirely, leaving yellow spots. 

[THE END.] 



OVER ONE MILLION SOLD 

OF THE 

OW King firadg Stories 

By a New York Detective, 

PUBLISHED IN THE 

Im York Detectiv e Library. 

They Are the Greatest Detective 
Stories Ever Pub lished, 

READ THE LIST BELOW: 

154 Old King Brady, the Detective. 

157 Old King Brady's Triumph. 

162 Old King Brady's Great Reward ; or, the Haselhurst Secret. 

168 Shoving the Queer; or, Old King Brady on the Scent of 

the Counterfeiters. 
177 Old King Brady in Australia. 
187 Old King Brady and the Scotland Yard Detective. 
191 Two Flights of Stairs; or, Old King Brady and the Missing 

Will. 
2C0 Old King Brady and the Mystery of the Bath. 
208 The Last Stroke; or, Old King Brady and tne Broken Bell. 
221 A Meerschaum Pipe; or, Old King Brady and the Yonkers 

Mvstery. 
228 Robbed of a Million ; or, Old King Brady and the Iron Box. 
243 Old Kin« Brady in Ireland. 
277 Old King Brady and the Telephone Mystery. 
300 The Mystery of a Mummy; or, Old King Brady and the 

Cartripht Case. 
319 The S. P. Q. R. ; or, Old King Brady and the Mystery of the 

Palisades. 
325 Old King Brady and the Red Leather Bag. A Weird Story 

of Land and Sea. 
332 A Bag of Shot ; or, Old King Bradv Out West. 
345 A Pile of Bricks ; or, Old King Brady and the Box of Rubies. 
354 The Belt of Gold ; or, Old King Brady in Peru. 
359 Old King Brady and the James Boys. 

For sale by all newsdealers or sent to any address on receipt 
of price, 10 cents each. Address 

FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, 
Bex 2730. 34 and 36 North Moore St., N. Y. 



SOME GREAT STORIES 



Published in the 



BOYS' STAR LIBRARY. 



32 Pages. 5 Cents. 



106 Simple Silas Among the Moonshiners, by Harry Rockwood 

107 The Black Band, by Paul Braddon 

108 Pacific Dick, the Pirates' Dread, by J. G. Bradle7 

109 Shorthand Dick ; or, The Young Reporter in Omaha, 

by Robert Maynard 

110 The Mystic " 7 ;" or, The Terror of the Bandits, 

by Gaston Game 

111 Little Crtfvv ; or, The Tomahawk and Scalping- Knife 

in Minnesota, by Robert Lennox 

112 The Tattooed Hand, by Paul Braddon 

113 Lost in New York ; or, A Country Boy's Adventures, 

by C. Little 

114 Simple Silas and the Night-Riders, by Harry Roekwood 

115 The Ocean Scout; or, Captain Low's Last Cruise, 

by Don Jenardo 

116 The Haunted Island, by Robert Lennox 

117 Torpedo Tom ; or, What a Yankee Boy Can Do, 

by Howard De Vere 

118 Lightning Joe, by R. T. Emmet 

119 Among the Thugs; or, Two Yankee Boys in India, 

by Hal Standish 

120 Young Phenix ; or, Avenged From the Grave, 

by Gaston Garna 

121 General Grant's Boy Spy; or, The Hero cf Five 

Forks, by Ralph Mortoa 

122 The Pearl of the Border; or, The Girl Avenger, 

by Robert Maynard 

123 The Boy Captives ol the Zulus; or, Held For Ran- 

som, by Capt. Geo. Granville, U. S. A. 

124 The Invisible Scout, by P. T. Raymond 

125 The Mysterious Five; or, The Terror of the Bandits, 

by Paul Draddon 
For sale by all newsdealers, or sent to any address on receipt 
of price, 5 cents, by 

FRANK T0USEY, Publisher, 

Box 2730. 34 and 36 North Moore St., N. Y. 



SPLENDID NOVELS 



Published in the 



5 Cent Wide Awake Library. 



PRICE 5 CENTS EACH. 



886 Braving the Flood; or, The Plucky Fight of Two 

Johnstown Boys, by R. T. Emmet. 

887 Muldoon the Solid Man— comic, by Tom Teaser. 

888 The Boy Star; or, From the Footlights to Fortune, 

by N. S. Wood. 

889 The Young Commander : or, A New York Boy in the 

Southern War, by Ralph Morton. 

890 Two in a Box ; or, The Long'and Short of It, by Tom Teaser. 

891 The Soldier's Son ; or, The Secret of the House of Eight 

Pines. A Story of New York, by C. Little. 

892 Satin Sam, the Young Western Sport, by Paul Braddon. 

893 The Funny Four— comic. by Peter Pad. 

894 The White Queen of the Aztecs ; or, Two Yankee Boys 

in Mexico, by R. T. Emmet. 

895 The Deacon's Son; or, The Imp of the Village— comic, 

by Tom Teaser. 

896 The Boy Slave of the Galley ; or, The Mystery of the 

Treasure Ship, by Percy B. St. John. 

897 A Bad Egg ; or, Hard to Crack— comic, by Tom Teaser. 

898 Two Years With a Pirate ; or, the Phantom Ship of the 

Gold Coast, by J. G. Bradley. 

899 Muldoon's Boarding House— comic, by Tom Teaser. 

900 The Boy Diamond King ; or, the Young Monte Cristo of 

New York, by C. Little. 

901 I key ; or, He Never Got Left — comic, by Tom Teaser. 

902 The Armorer's Son ; or, the Mystery of the Tower of 

London, by Allyn Draper. 

903 Jimmy Grimes; or, Sharp, Smart and Sassy-comic, 

by Tom Teaser. 
The above books are for sale by all newsdealers in the United 
States and Canada, or will be sent to your address, postage 
free, on receipt of price. Address 

FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, 

Box 2730. 34 and 36 Worth Moore St., N. Y. 



EXCITING STORIES 

Published in the 

Imr York MectiYB Library. 

Price 10 Cents Each. 32 Pages. 



342 Chasing the James Boys ; or, A Detective's Dangerous 

Case, by D. W. Stevens. 

343 A Masked Mystery ; or, Tracking a Bird of Prey, 

by J. T. Brougham. 

344 An Ameiican Detective in Egypt; or, Exciting Work 

Among the Pyramids, by Allan Arnold. 

345 A Pile of Bricks; "or, Old King Brady and the Box of 

Rubies, by A New York Detective. 

846 " 3-4-6-9;" or, The Bank Burglars' League, by A. F. Hill. 

347 The Johnstown Detective ; or, Tracking the Robbers of 

the Dead, by Police Captain Howard. 

348 The James Boys and the Detectives, by D. W. Stevens. 

349 Young Royal, the " Always on Time" Detective and 

His Horse of Many Disguises, by Old Cap Lee. 

350 The Padded Room ; or, A Detective's Search for an 

Heiress, by Robert Maynard. 

351 The Lightning Change Detective, by Allan A'rnold. 

352 C. O. D. ; or, The Mystery of a Trunk, 

by Police Captain Howard. 

353 1001 ; or, The Detective's Mysterious Foes, 

by J. T. Brougham. 

354 The Belt of Gold ; or, Old King Brady in Peru, 

by A New York Detective. 

355 1 Against 100; or, Working a Clew in the Dark, 

by Allan Arnold. 

356 The James Boys ; or, The Bandit King's Last Shot, 

by D. W. Stevens. 

357 An Iron Bound Keg; or, the Error that Cost a Life, 

by Old Cap Lee. 

358 Sam Sixkiller, the Cherokee Detective ; or, The James 

Boys' Most Dangerous Foe, by D. W. Stevens. 

359 Old King Brady and the James Boys. 

by A New York Detective. 

360 Nick Neverseen ; or, The Invisible Detective. A Start- 

ling Story of Two Great Cities, 

by Police Captain Howard. 
For sale by all newsdealers, or sent to any address on receipt 
of price. Address 

FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, 

Box 2730. 34 and 36 North. Moore St., N. Y. 



HAVE YOU READ ABOUT 

FRANK READE 

AND 

FRANK READE, JR., 

AND 

THEIR WONDERFOL INVENTIONS? 

Below You Will Find a Complete List of the 

FRANK READE STORIES 

Published in The 

5 Cent Wide Awake Library 

No. 54:1 Frank Tteade, and His Steam Man of the Plains. 

No. 553 Frank Reade and His Steam Horse. 

No. 597 Frank Reade and His Steam Team. 

No. 607 Frank Reade and His Steam Tally-Ho. 

No. 625 Frank Reade, Jr., and His Steam Wonder. 

No. 627 Frank Reade, Jr., and His Electric Boat. 

No. 629 Frank Reade, Jr., and His Adventures With His Latest 
Invention. 

No. 631 Frank Reade, Jr., and His Air-Ship. 

No. 633 Frank Heade, Jr. 's Marvel. 

No. 651 Frank Reade, Jr., in the Clouds. 

No. 667 Frank Reade, Jr.'s Great Electric Tricycle, 

No. 697 Frank Reade, Jr., With His Air-Ship in Africa. 

No. 744 Across the Continent on Wings ; or, Frank Reade, Jr.'s 
Greatest Flight. 

No. 750 Frank Reade, Jr., Exploring Mexico in His New Air- 
Ship. 

No. 791 The Electric Man; or, Frank Reade, Jr., in Australia. 

No. S15 The Electric Horse; or, Frank Reade, Jr.,and His 
Father in Search of the Lost Treasure of the Peruvians. 

No. 849 Frank Reade, Jr.'s Chase through the Cloud3. 

No. 855 Frank Reade, Jr., and His Electric Team. 

No. 877 Frank Reade, Jr's, Search For a Sunken Ship. 

For sale by all newsdealers, or, sent by return mail on re- 
ceipt of price, 5 cents per copy. Adress 

FRANK TOTTSEY, Publisher, 

34 & 36 North Moore Street, 

P. O. Box 2730. New York. 



THE GOLDEN WEEKLY 

Is a Large 16 Page, Illustrated Story 
and Sketch Paper for Both Young 
and Old. Its Stories Cannot be 
Surpassed, and Its Authors 
Have a National Reputa- 
tion. Read the Follow- 
ing Array of Talent 
Who Write Ex- 
clusively for 

THE GOLDEN WEEKLY: 

Alexander Douglas (Scotland Yard Detective) — 
Tom Teaser— H. K. Shackleford— Ralph Mor- 
ton — Allan Arnold— J. T. Brougham — Hal 
Standish— A. F. Hill— D. W. Stevens— Torn 
Fox (Philadelphia Detective) — Frank 
Forrest — John Sherman — Horace Ap- 
pleton — Richard R. Montgomery — 
Col. Ralph Fenton— Percy B. St. 
John — Capt. Geo. Granville, 
U.S.A. : — Alexander Arm- 
strong — James D. Mon- 
tague, and many others. 

THE GOLDEN WEEKLY 

For the year 1889 will be sent to your address, post-paid, tor 
$2.50 ; for six months, $1.25 ; and for three months, 65 cents. 

CLUB RATES: 

For every club of five names, sent at one time, together with 
the subscription price, we will send one copy free. 

For sale by all newsdealers, or sent to your address, post- 
paid, on receipt of price. Address 

FRANK TOTJSEY, Publisher, 

Pox 2730, 34 and 36 Forth Moore Street, X, I. 



HOW TO 




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The Science of Self- Defense. 



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HOW TO WRITE LETTERS TO 

LADIES, - 
HOW TO WRITE LETTERS TO 
GENTLEMEN, - - - . 
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OE RECITATIONS, - - 

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HOW TO DO SEuOND SIGHT 
HOW TO WRITE IN AN AL- 
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THE SHORTVS' SNAPS, - - 
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THE LIFE OF POLICE CAPTAIN 
HOWARD, - - - - - 

THE LIFE OF PETE!? PAD, - 
THE I IEE OF TOM TEASER. - 
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All the above books are for sale by newsdealers throughout th 
United States and Canada, or they will be sent, postage paid, to you 
.address, on receipt of 10 cents each. 

FRANK TOUSEY, Publisher, 



Box 2730. 



34 & 36 NORTH MOORE ST., N. V 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




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